Journal of Sustainable Marketing

Theory of Planned Behavior

The Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1991) is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action, developed to address its limitations.. According to the Theory of Planned Behavior, attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms impact an individual's behavioral intentions. Attitudes reflect and summarize a person’s assessment of a given behavior as favorable or unfavorable, subjective norms specify the perceived social pressure to react or not react to the behavior, and perceived behavioral control indicates the degree of control an individual believes they have in terms of performing the behavior (Abeysekera, Manalang, David, & Guiao, 2022; Ajzen, 1991; Al-Swidi & Saleh, 2021; Arkorful et al., 2022). All of these elements are important for understanding green purchase intention, as both internal factors (attitudes, perceived behavioral control) and external factors (subjective norms) impact consumer choices and decisions (Rozenkowska, 2023).

The Theory of Planned Behavior is potentially useful in predicting consumers’ environmental behaviors, with green purchase intention offering insights into how this theory can be used to improve sustainable consumption (Paul, Modi, & Patel, 2016). Several studies have effectively employed Theory of Planned Behavior to examine many aspects of green marketing, e.g., green restaurants, sustainable cosmetic products, eco-friendly hotels, and sustainable energy-efficient products (Ateş, 2021; Liu, Liu, & Mo, 2020; Nawang, Shukor, Mursidi, & Ismail, 2023; Wojnarowska, Sołtysik, & Prusak, 2021). However, some researchers have questioned the effectiveness of the Theory of Planned Behavior in predicting environmentally responsible purchase intentions (Joshi & Rahman, 2015; Zaremohzzabieh, Ismail, Ahrari, & Samah, 2021). Indeed, research comparing Theory of Planned Behavior with other theories, such as social cognitive theory, has shown that Theory of Planned Behavior is a more effective predictor of green purchase intention (Panda, Singhal, Jena, & Tripathy, 2024). Thus, Theory of Planned Behavior was selected as the theoretical framework for the current study, integrating green brand affect as an independent variable and green brand trust, image, and attitude as mediators of their influence on green purchase intention.

Green Brand Affect

The concept of “green” has several meanings, including "sustainable," "environmentally friendly," "environmentally responsible" and "pro-environmental” consumer behavior (Kazançoğlu & Köse, 2024). Green brands have attributes that are connected with minimizing their environmental impact (Hassan, Mahmood, & Khakwani, 2025). According to Ajander, Hubertsson, and Nilsson (2023), positive green brand affect can influence customers’ feelings and may affect usage and buying decisions. When consumers are emotionally connected to a brand, they are more likely to evaluate the brand positively, which strengthens their brand loyalty (Ajander et al., 2023; Mizerski & White, 1986).

O′Donohoe (1994) suggested that brand affect offers a unique opportunity to enhance customer satisfaction and emotional attachment to a brand. Positive affect also strengthens consumer loyalty, increasing long-term benefits such as increased brand commitment (Gundlach, Achrol, & Mentzer, 1995). Similarly, Zajonc (1980) conceptualized affect as an emotional response that can either enhance or damage a brand’s image in consumers' minds. Berscheid (1983) explained that business affect and trust often stem from close interpersonal relationships between consumers and brands, enhancing emotional attachment and brand image.

Positive green brand affect also enhances consumer perceptions of brand trustworthiness (Dick & Basu, 1994; Natasiah & Syaefulloh, 2024). Brands that evoke emotions such as joy or affection among consumers are more likely to be chosen, as these emotions enhance brand attitude and brand image. High levels of positive affect increase a brand's market share by encouraging loyalty (Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001). Consumers are more likely to purchase brands that make them "happy" or "joyful," enhancing positive brand perceptions. According to (Dick & Basu, 1994), brand affect is essential in forming positive emotional reactions related to the brand.

Our study uses green brand affect to capture consumers' positive emotional responses toward sustainable electronic products. Green brand affect is defined as customers' positive emotional feelings about a brand because of its perceived environmental performance (Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001; Chen et al., 2020). We hypothesize that green brand affect leads to several positive outcomes as follows:

H1: Green brand affect has a positive effect on green brant trust.

H2: Green brand affect has a positive effect on green brand attitude.

H3: Green brand affect has a positive effect on green purchase intentions.

H4: Green brand affect has positive impacts on green brand image.

Green Purchase Intention

Green purchase intention is defined as the willingness of consumers to buy environmentally friendly products (Wang, Walker, & Barabanov, 2020). Green purchase intention reflects the degree to which the consumers prioritize eco-friendly goods over conventional alternatives based on their perceived ecological effects. In line with Alghzawi, Alghizzawi, and Tarabieh (2020), consumer intention and actual buying behavior are often positively related, reflecting the alignment between a consumer’s intention and their final decision to buy. Consumer motivation to purchase is driven, in part, by their attitudes toward or behaviors in regards to a particular brand (Tarabieh, Gil-Pechuan, Al-Obaidi, & Haidous, 2020; Wang et al., 2020).

Scholars around the world have studied green purchase intention in different industries and product categories (Hou & Sarigöllü, 2022; Mehraj & Qureshi, 2022). Many consumers are interested in choosing branded products that are produced under green procedures (Waheed, Zhang, Rashid, Tahir, & Zafar, 2020). Research by (Han, Hampson, Wang, & Wang, 2022) found that customer confidence in a product or brand’s ecological claims positively impacts their green purchase intention. Thus, Lakatos et al. (2021) argue that brands should adapt their strategies to align with the increasing customer knowledge and demand for ecologically responsible products, as more customers are now ecologically conscious. In sum, green purchase intention reflects an individual’s willingness to give priority to goods or services that appear to have greener attributes compared to traditional products. Green purchase intention also points to the likelihood that consumers have formed an attachment to certain green products or services, which increases their commitment to buying eco-friendly goods (Tarabieh et al., 2020).

Green Brand Trust

Green brand trust, explained by (Chen, 2010), refers to the consumer’s willingness to trust that a brand actually has ecologically friendly features. Trust, in general, plays a key role in creating a positive connection between a brand and its consumers (Kwon, Jung, Choi, & Kim, 2021; Pagani, Racat, & Hofacker, 2019; Salehzadeh, Sayedan, Mirmehdi, & Aqagoli, 2023). Based on previous research, (Foroudi, Nazarian, & Aziz, 2020) note that trust involves acceptance of vulnerability because one believes that the other party’s intentions and/or behaviors will result in positive outcomes. Many researchers have found that brand trust is strongly related to increased purchase intention, as customers are more likely to buy from businesses they trust (Situmorang, Indriani, Simatupang, & Soesanto, 2021; Suki & N, 2016). In addition, when consumers observe that a business is ecologically responsible and consistent, their trust that the business and brand are truly green increases (Wang, Zaman, & Alvi, 2022). Thus, green brand trust and green purchase intention have a positive connection (Chen, 2010; Ha, Ngan, & Nguyen, 2022; Natasiah & Syaefulloh, 2024).

Nevertheless, if negative incidents involving a product occur (e.g., a smartphone catching fire), customer trust can be severely damaged, particularly if such problems contradict the brand's claims of being environmentally sustainable. Thus, green product claims that are contrary to reported or actual experience can harm a firm’s reputation and reduce green brand trust , as well as green purchase intention (Ha et al., 2022). In the Pakistani context of electronic goods, green trust refers to consumer confidence that sustainable electronic products will be produced, used, and disposed or reused with minimal environmental damage and low carbon emissions. Recent studies such as (Nguyen-Viet, 2022) have reported that green brand trust influences consumption behavior, specifically by mediating the relationship between green brand attitude and the green purchase intention. Trust-building tactics, such as effective promotion and a reliable brand image, also play vital roles in establishing green trust, which in turn motivates green product purchase (Cheung & To, 2021; Lavuri, Jabbour, Grebinevych, & Roubaud, 2022; Wong, Wong, & Wong, 2020), leading to our next hypothesis.

H5: Green band trust has a positive impact on green purchase intention.

Green Brand Attitude

In the context of green marketing, green brand attitude refers to a consumer’s general positive or negative assessment of a product or brand based on its ecological practices. According to (Hoa, 2022), positive attitudes toward a good as green or eco-friendly goods increases consumer intentions to purchase such goods. According to Salam, Smith, and Mehboob (2022), eco-friendly attitudes, which include beliefs about a product’s environmental safety, play a vital role in shaping consumer buying behavior. Positive green brand attitudes encourage consumers to buy more sustainable products and enhance their willingness to support green businesses through positive word-of-mouth about these brands (Salehzadeh et al., 2023).

The relationship between consumer attitude and purchase intention has been studied in several countries as well as industries. For example, in Vietnam, Nguyen (2012) found a positive connection between customer attitudes and purchase intention for sustainably produced food. The results of another study also showed that customer attitudes, specifically those shaped around the brand's ecological image, positively influenced purchase intention (Hoa, 2022). In addition, Zaremohzzabieh et al. (2021) reported a significant relationship between customer attitudes regarding ecological goods and green purchase intention. All these findings highlight the significance of attitudes, especially green brand attitude, in driving customers' intentions to purchase eco-friendly goods (Aman, Harum, & Hussein, 2012; Khaola, Potiane, & Mokhethi, 2014; Paul et al., 2016). Based on this literature, we hypothesized that

H6: Green brand attitude has a positive relationship with green purchase intention.

Green Brand Image

According to Bashir, Khwaja, Rashid, Turi, and Waheed (2020), based on Kotler (2001), consumers respond to a product or brand based on the rational image they form regarding that product. When the product or object in question is a brand or business, numerous factors—involving beliefs, emotions, and feelings about the company's products—can influence how consumers react. Brand image plays a vital role in influencing consumer behavior, as it enables potential buyers to more easily recall and identify the brand (Errajaa, Daucé, & Legohérel, 2020; Natasiah & Syaefulloh, 2024). Brand image is an important aspect of success for any brand or business, as it indicates how consumers observe the brand and its products (Listyarti, Suryani, & Cordova, 2023; Natasiah & Syaefulloh, 2024). Green brand image, in the context of green marketing, refers to a brand’s perceived environmental reputation, which is in line with consumers’ ecological expectations (Khandelwal, Kulshreshtha, & Tripathi, 2019; Rahman & Nguyen‐viet, 2023). Moreover (Chen et al., 2020) note that green brand image is positively connected to ecological purchasing, and many other scholars have reported that green brand image can provide brands with an advantage in the marketplace (Zameer, Wang, & Yasmeen, 2020).

Green brand image offers numerous advantages to brands. Lin, Lobo, and Leckie (2017) organize these advantages into three categories: functional, symbolic, and experiential. Functional advantages emphasize the practical benefits of the business’s ecological offerings; symbolic advantages mention the emotional value customers connect to an ecological brand, and experiential advantages emphasize the physical and psychological involvements tied to using the specific brand’s products or services (Zameer et al., 2020). According to Social Cognitive Theory, customers tend to favor goods that are generally accepted and tied to well-known brand images (Majeed, Aslam, Murtaza, Attila, & Molnár, 2022). A strong green brand image strengthens customer trust in the brand’s ecological responsibility and increases green purchase intentions. Based on this literature, we hypothesize:

H7: Green brand image has a positive impact on green purchase intention

Mediating Role of Green Brand Trust

A recent study by Amin and Tarun (2021) confirms the idea that green brand trust positively affects customers' intentions to buy ecological goods (Ha et al., 2022). Furthermore, (Cheung & To, 2021) examined trust as a potential mediator and they found that green brand trust plays an important role in how customers observe the trustworthiness and ecological responsibility of brands' practices. Furthermore,Lavuri et al. (2022) provide evidence suggesting that green brand trust to mediates the relationship between ecological advertising and green brand image, as well as green purchase intention. Similarly, prior studies report that trust-building advertising strategies regarding a brand’s ecological initiatives are important for increasing customer trust and inspiring green goods purchases (Cheung & To, 2021; Lavuri et al., 2022; Wong et al., 2020). Additionally, (Chang & Chen, 2013) discovered that green brand trust mediates the relationship between green product quality and green purchase intention, strengthening the concept that trust is a key intermediate in the customer decision-making procedure. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H8: Green brand trust mediates the positive relationship between green brand affect and green purchase intention

Mediating Role of Green Brand Attitude

Green brand attitude plays an important role in shaping customers’ purchasing decisions (Chen et al., 2020). A literature review by Sarumathi (2014) reported that various studies indicated that the effects of antecedents such as environmental knowledge and concern on green purchase intention were mediated by mediated by green attitudes. Likewise, Maichum, Parichatnon, and Peng (2017) also found that attitudes significantly mediated the effect of green knowledge on green purchase intention in Thailand andPaul et al. (2016) noted that attitude mediated the effects of green concerns on green purchase intention.. These findings suggest that green brand attitude is likely to be a key mechanism through which green brand affect impacts green purchase intention and lead to our next hypothesis:

H9: Green brand attitude mediates the positive relationship between green brand affect and green purchase intention.

Mediating Role of Green Brand Image

Consumer decisions to purchase green products appears to be positively influenced by green brand image (Mourad & Ahmed, 2012). A positive green brand image enhances the possibility that customers will select the brand’s goods, particularly when they observe the brand as sincerely ecologically responsible (Mourad & Ahmed, 2012). For a business to succeed in the long run, a positive brand image and active marketing strategies are crucial. These strategies not only help the company attract new customers, but also help retain existing customers who are loyal to the brand’s green practices. As suggested by Social Cognitive Theory, individuals tend to prefer to purchase products that have widely recognized and favorable brand images (Majeed et al., 2022). Furthermore, it is likely that consumers prefer to buy brands that they trust as leaders in environmental sustainability. Thus, our final hypothesis states:

H10: Global brand image mediates the positive relationship between green brand affect and green purchase intention.

Description of Study Context for Participants

Questionnaire is used to develop a study that considers your perception in relation to green brand Affect that influence green purchase intention. Responding to it is voluntary, it takes a few minutes to complete, and information is provided anonymously. Please review the questionnaire and, for the following items, circle/tick the number that indicate the most suitable answers for you. Thank you for your time and cooperation. I appreciate your assistance in supporting my effort to complete this research.

Sample Size and Data Collection

The target population for this study is electronic consumers who are concerned with reducing carbon emissions. The respondents for the current study are the consumers of electronic brands presently sold in Pakistan. Although (Kline, 2023) proposes that ten responses per item are acceptable, Arrindell and Ende (1985) suggest that having twenty study participants per item is more appropriate. Given that our model features 20 reflective items for 5 latent factors, 500 participants (Waris & Hameed, 2020) were recruited for the study to ensure approximately 400 acceptable respondent surveys. Following prior research in this area, a non-probabilistic convenience sample focused on educated, urban consumers was recruited (Ahmad & Zhang, 2020; Shoukat, Baig, Hussain, Rehman, & Shakir, 2021; Wahab & Ismael, 2022). The questionnaire was designed using Google Forms. The URL for the questionnaire was sent to participants via different platforms such as email, WhatsApp, and Facebook.

After screening for missing values and removing invalid questionnaires, 379 valid questionnaires remained for the analysis. Respondents provided demographic data such as their education level, annual income, gender, and age. Table 1 shows that a majority of respondents had high levels of formal education with 84.7% completing their undergraduate degree and 10.6% having graduate level or higher training. Respondents’ annual income ranged from 3 lakh (approximately = US $40,000) or more (10.6%) to 2 lakh (10.0%) to less than 1 lakh (79.4%). The sample was 66.5% female. Almost all respondents were less than 30 years of age (see Table 1).

Measures

The scales used in this study are well-established. Scales from (Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001; Chen et al., 2020) were adopted to measure green brand affect. Other scales were adopted from previous studies as follows: green brand trust from Chen (2010); green brand image from (Chen, 2010) and (Cretu & Brodie, 2007); green brand attitude from (Chen, Hung, Wang, Huang, & Liao, 2017); and green purchase intention from (Nguyen et al., 2019) and (Tarabieh, 2021). All study variables and their corresponding measurement items are listed in Table 2 . The questionnaire featured five-point Likert items that ranged from "strongly disagree” to “agree strongly.”

Measurement Model Assessment

Partial least squares (PLS) using SMART PLS4 (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2014) was applied to analyze the hypothesized structural model (see Figure 1 ). Multivariate normality was investigated using the Kolmogorov Smirnov test. Convergent validity (reliability) was assessed using three criteria: composite reliability, average variance extracted, and individual item reliability (Hair, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2011). All Cronbach’s alphas (α) and composite reliability values were higher than 0.7 and 0.9 (Hair et al., 2011; Ursachi, Horodnic, & Zait, 2015). All item factor loadings were greater than 0.70 and all average variance extracted exceed .50 (see Table 3). Discriminant validity (see Table 6 ) was established as the hetero trait mono trait (HTMT) 0.12 to 0.87, lower than the value of 0.90 (Hair, Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2021).

Common Method Bias Test

Table 4 and Table 5 present a comparison of results before and after including the Common Latent Factor to address common method bias. The results indicate that common method bias has a minimal effect on the findings, confirming the robustness of the model. To assess the impact of common method bias, a chi-square difference test was conducted to compare the models with and without the Common Latent Factor. The test results showed that the inclusion of the Common Latent Factor did not significantly improve the model fit (Δχ² = 10, Δdf = 5; critical value = 11.07). This indicates that shared variance among items does not significantly affect the path coefficients and that the baseline model without the Common Latent Factor is sufficient. These findings validate the robustness and reliability of the reported relationships.

Structural Equation Model & Hypothesis Testing

SEM is applied widely in consumer research to analyze relationships among latent constructs (Bollen & Long, 1993; Hu, Ding, Li, Chen, & Yang, 2019). Ten hypotheses predicted antecedents and mediators that are related to green purchase intention, in this case for energy-efficient products. Bootstrapping was applied to estimate the path coefficients and assess their significance level (Hair et al., 2021; Yi & Davis, 2003). According to (Hair et al., 2021) path coefficient values range between -1 and +1. A path coefficient value closer to +1 indicates a strong positive relationship, while a value closer to -1 signifies a negative relationship. Typically, if the t-value exceeds 1.96, the hypothesized relationship is supported at the 95% confidence level.

$R^2$ indicates the amount of variance in the outcome construct that is accounted for by the predictor constructs (Elliott & Woodward, 2007; Hair et al., 2011). As a rule of thumb, a coefficireportent of determination of 0.25 is considered weak, 0.50 is moderate, and 0.75 is strong (Hair et al., 2011; Henseler, Ringle, & Sinkovics, 2009). However, in social sciences, especially buyer behavior research, a coefficient of determination value of 0.2 is generally acceptable (Hair et al., 2014; Hair et al., 2011). In this study, the $R^2$ and adjusted $R^2$ are satisfactory with a moderate explanatory level of 0.45 (Table 7) (Hair et al., 2011).

The results in Table 8 support H1 by indicating green brand affect positively impacts green brand trust (β = 0.57, t = 13.50, p<.001). Similarly, H2, which predicted that green brand affect positively affects green brand attitude, was supported (β = 0.71, t = 23.58, p<.001) as was H4 the effect of green brand affect on green brand image (β = 0.66, t = 21.33, p < 0.001). However, H3 was not supported as the hypothesized relationship between green brand affect and green purchase intention was not statistically significant (β = 0.02, t = 0.37, p>= 0.70). H5, which posited that green brand trust positively impacts, was not supported green purchase intention (β = 0.006, t = 0.10, p> 0.91). In contrast, the effect of green brand image on green purchase intention was significant in the predicted direction, supporting H6 (β = 0.37, t = 4.71, p <0.001). Last, H7, which predicted a positive relationship between green brand attitude and green purchase intention, was supported (β = 0.43, t = 5.62, p<0.001). Overall, while most hypotheses were supported, two were not.

The mediating effect of green brand trust between green brand affect and green purchase intention (H8) was not supported (β = 0.003, t = 0.10, p>0.91), aligning with the findings of Lee (2020), who also reported an insignificant effect of green brand trust on green purchase intention. However, hypotheses regarding the mediating effects of both green brand image (H9) and green brand attitude (H10) on green purchase intention were supported (β = 0.25, t = 4.36, p<.001; β = 0.30, t = 5.72, p< .001). Thus, green brand trust and green brand attitude positively mediate the relationship between green brand affect and green purchase intention, suggesting that the green brand affect enhances green brand trust and green attitudes, which in turn lead to an increase in consumer purchase intentions.

Theoretical Implications

This investigation found overall support for the value of the Theory of Planned Behavior as a framework for studying the purchase intentions of consumers regarding electronic sustainable electronic products. In addition, this study contributes to the literature on green purchase intention by providing evidence of the importance of mediating constructs. In particular, we provide evidence in support of the important mediating relationships of green brand attitude and green brand image between green brand affect and green purchase intentions, but not green brand trust.

As a result, the new model tested in this study extends the literature by suggesting the potential importance of green brand affect as an antecedent to green purchase intention, not directly, but through the mediating constructs, green brand attitude and green brand image. It highlights that researchers need to better understand the role that emotions play in influencing consumers' purchase intentions for sustainable products, thereby extending the findings of Chen et al. (2020). Thus, a key theoretical implication lies in the potentially import effect that brand liking has on consumer decision-making, extending to increased green purchase intention and possibly, brand loyalty (Bhattacharyya, 2007). The potential theoretical implications of green brand affect may extend across several fields, highlighting its role in shaping green consumption behavior, influencing business tactics, and identifying effective social marketing communication content regarding sustainability.

Managerial Implications

Industries should expand strategies to enhance their green brand affect in order to positively impact green brand attitude and image, thereby enhancing green purchase intention. Companies should systematically identify the drivers of green purchasing behavior in their product categories and reinforce these factors. Additionally, businesses should seek to increase green brand affect, green brand attitude, and green brand image by investing in research and development to create sustainable products from eco-friendly materials and conduct comprehensive lifecycle assessments to minimize environmental impact, from production to disposal, ensuring products are designed for longevity. Companies should also recognize environmental standards and obtain certifications to build credibility and trust with consumers. By increasing levels of trust among more consumers, it is possible that this construct will join green brand attitude and green brand image as a mediator between green brand affect and green purchase intention.

Policymakers must highlight environmental issues to help consumers understand the climate-related problems caused by electronic products, such as how air conditioners and refrigerators release harmful gases that damage the ozone layer. Social media platforms should be used to raise consumer awareness about government programs and brand efforts related to sustainability and provide guidelines on conventional products to help consumers shift toward sustainable alternatives that reduce greenhouse gases. Introducing positive emotional communications (e.g., feeling good about the environmental harmony of purchasing green products) along with the practical benefits of sustainable products appears likely to increase consumer intentions to purchase energy-efficient electronics.

Finally, green brands can provide a competitive advantage in markets where ecological concerns are a priority. Companies that effectively communicate their sustainability efforts can differentiate themselves from competitors and attract environmentally conscious consumers. Marketers should identify the unique aspects of their green initiatives, including those that increase positive feelings about the brand, and leverage them to strengthen their competitive advantage.